The School of Biomedical Sciences Wiki - User contributions [en]

Alzheimer's disease

2013-10-18T15:24:29Z

130006699:

Alzheimer's [[Disease|disease]] is named after [[Alois Alzheimer|Alois Alzheimer]], a German neurologist who first discovered it. Alzheimer's disease is a brain disease which affects the behaviour, memory and cognitive ability of sufferers and is also considered to be a geriatric disease<ref>Alzheimer’s Association (2011). Alzheimers Disease. http://www.alz.org/alzheimers_disease_alzheimers_disease.asp.Last visited [29.11.2011]</ref>. It is a major cause of dementia which  is the loss of memory and brain function.

=== Causes ===

There are no known causes of Alzheimer's, however it is characterised by the following;

*Formation of Neurofibrillary tangles and Amyloid plaques (which are [[Proteins|proteins]]) in the brain,
*Death of brain cells, possibly as a result of the aforementioned point.
*Abnormalities in brain [[Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]]. It is believed that Alzheimer's disease occurs due to irreversible damage to brain [[Neuron|neurones]] causing loss of function.

=== Risk Factors ===

Scientists believe Alzheimer's is caused by a combination of factors, which include;

*Family History: it is suggested that people with family members who have had Alzheimer's have a higher risk of getting the disease themselves.
*[[Down's syndrome|Down's Syndrome]]: sufferer's from Down's syndrome have been noticed to have a higher risk of getting Alzheimer's disease also.
*Whiplash and Head Injury
*[[Aluminium|Aluminium]]: exposure to [[Aluminium|aluminium]] is suggesed to increase ones risk of getting Alzheimer's disease.

=== Signs and Symptoms ===

The general signs and symptoms of Alzheimer's disease include:

*Memory loss; this is the major symptom of Alzheimer's; patients forget dates, events and even their location. This results in them having to ask the same questions repeatedly.
*Problems with speaking and writing; patients may lose their train of thought mid-conversation and not know how to continue speaking.
*Change in mood and personality; patients may become confused, aggressive, suspicious, depressed and irritated without provocation.
*Routinely placing objects in odd places, such as placing a phone in the fridge.
*Lack of concentration; patients have trouble understanding, may withdraw form work and hobbies.

However, it must be noted that these signs and symptoms do not constitute conclusive evidence that one suffers from Alzheimer's disease<ref>Alzheimer’s Disease International (2010) Early Symptoms http://www.alz.co.uk/alzheimers/symptoms.html. Last viewed [29.11.2011]</ref>. Anyone who has any of these symbols is strongly advised to see a doctor for proper diagnosis.

=== Stages ===

There are generally three stages of development of Alzheimer's disease; mild, moderate and severe<ref>National Health Service (2010) Alzheimer’s Disease- Symptoms. http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Alzheimers-disease/Pages/Symptoms.aspx. Last viewed [29.11.2011]</ref>. These can be subdivided into seven stages which range from no impairment to moderate cog nitive decline and severe cognitive decline.

=== Maintenance ===

As there is no known cure for Alzheimer's disease, however sufferers can be managed in the following ways;

*Memory aids; large clocks and notice boards can be used to help patients remember what to do and when to do it.
*Utility equipment; such as compartmented pill boxes and non-spill cups can also been used.
*Mobility aids and safety devices are recomended.
*Nursing care is the most important way of maintaining Alzheimer's patients as constant supervision and assistance will be needed as the disease develops.

TREATMENT

Anti oxidant can be used for the treatment of Alzheimer since it produces free radicals.

=== References ===

<references />

4. Rosini M, Simoni E, Milelli A, Minarini A, Melchiorre C., (13 Oct 16), J Med Chem., Oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease: are we connecting the dots?

Alzheimer's disease

2013-10-18T15:21:20Z

130006699:

Alzheimer's [[Disease|disease]] is named after [[Alois Alzheimer|Alois Alzheimer]], a German neurologist who first discovered it. Alzheimer's disease is a brain disease which affects the behaviour, memory and cognitive ability of sufferers and is also considered to be a geriatric disease<ref>Alzheimer’s Association (2011). Alzheimers Disease. http://www.alz.org/alzheimers_disease_alzheimers_disease.asp.Last visited [29.11.2011]</ref>. It is a major cause of dementia which  is the loss of memory and brain function.

=== Causes ===

There are no known causes of Alzheimer's, however it is characterised by the following;

*Formation of Neurofibrillary tangles and Amyloid plaques (which are [[Proteins|proteins]]) in the brain,
*Death of brain cells, possibly as a result of the aforementioned point.
*Abnormalities in brain [[Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]]. It is believed that Alzheimer's disease occurs due to irreversible damage to brain [[Neuron|neurones]] causing loss of function.

=== Risk Factors ===

Scientists believe Alzheimer's is caused by a combination of factors, which include;

*Family History: it is suggested that people with family members who have had Alzheimer's have a higher risk of getting the disease themselves.
*[[Down's syndrome|Down's Syndrome]]: sufferer's from Down's syndrome have been noticed to have a higher risk of getting Alzheimer's disease also.
*Whiplash and Head Injury
*[[Aluminium|Aluminium]]: exposure to [[Aluminium|aluminium]] is suggesed to increase ones risk of getting Alzheimer's disease.

=== Signs and Symptoms ===

The general signs and symptoms of Alzheimer's disease include:

*Memory loss; this is the major symptom of Alzheimer's; patients forget dates, events and even their location. This results in them having to ask the same questions repeatedly.
*Problems with speaking and writing; patients may lose their train of thought mid-conversation and not know how to continue speaking.
*Change in mood and personality; patients may become confused, aggressive, suspicious, depressed and irritated without provocation.
*Routinely placing objects in odd places, such as placing a phone in the fridge.
*Lack of concentration; patients have trouble understanding, may withdraw form work and hobbies.

However, it must be noted that these signs and symptoms do not constitute conclusive evidence that one suffers from Alzheimer's disease<ref>Alzheimer’s Disease International (2010) Early Symptoms http://www.alz.co.uk/alzheimers/symptoms.html. Last viewed [29.11.2011]</ref>. Anyone who has any of these symbols is strongly advised to see a doctor for proper diagnosis.

=== Stages ===

There are generally three stages of development of Alzheimer's disease; mild, moderate and severe<ref>National Health Service (2010) Alzheimer’s Disease- Symptoms. http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Alzheimers-disease/Pages/Symptoms.aspx. Last viewed [29.11.2011]</ref>. These can be subdivided into seven stages which range from no impairment to moderate cog nitive decline and severe cognitive decline.

=== Maintenance ===

As there is no known cure for Alzheimer's disease, however sufferers can be managed in the following ways;

*Memory aids; large clocks and notice boards can be used to help patients remember what to do and when to do it.
*Utility equipment; such as compartmented pill boxes and non-spill cups can also been used.
*Mobility aids and safety devices are recomended.
*Nursing care is the most important way of maintaining Alzheimer's patients as constant supervision and assistance will be needed as the disease develops.

TREATMENT

Anti oxidant can be used for the treatment of Alzheimer since it produces free radicals.

=== References ===

<references />

Oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease: are we connecting the dots?

Alzheimer's disease

2013-10-18T15:20:55Z

130006699:

Bronchi

2012-11-30T16:22:15Z

130006699: Created page with "The bronchi tree is a constituent of the trachea. The trachea divides into two main bronchi: one for the left lung and the other for the right lung. The right bronchus is larger ..."

The bronchi tree is a constituent of the trachea. The trachea divides into two main bronchi: one for the left lung and the other for the right lung. The right bronchus is larger than the left bronchus. The bronchi tree form a more branched tracheobronchial

The primary bronchus then divides into a secondary lobar bronchi. This has three branches on the right and two branches on left. The secondary bronchi then further divides into tertiary bronchi that "supply the bronchopulmonary segments". After the tertiary bronchi, there is a conducting bronchiole and then terminal bronchioles.

=== REFERENCES ===

<references />

Keith L. Moore, Arthur F. Dalley, Anne M. R. Agur, (2010), Clinically Oriented Anatomy, 6th Edition: Page 112-115, Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer business.

Pyranose

2012-11-30T16:06:50Z

130006699:

A pyranose is a [[Carbohydrate|carbohydrate]] [[Monosaccharide|monossaccharide]] that is a six-membered (6 [[Carbon|carbon]]) ring. It is formed form a straight chain compound tha has 6 carbon. An [[aldehyde|aldehyde]] reacts with an [[Alcohol|alcohol]] to form a cyclic hemiacetal.  The name pyranose is due to its similarity to pyran<ref>Berg J., Tymoczko J and Stryer L. (2011) Biochemistry, 7th edition, New York: WH Freeman. pg 332</ref>. Pyranose can have two different conformation namely; chair and boat. 

=== References ===

<references />

   2. Berg J., Tymoczko J and Stryer L. (2011) Biochemistry, 7th edition, New York: WH Freeman. pg 334

Pyranose

2012-11-30T16:06:15Z

130006699:

A pyranose is a [[Carbohydrate|carbohydrate]] [[Monosaccharide|monossaccharide]] that is a six-membered (6 [[Carbon|carbon]]) ring. It is formed form a straight chain compound tha has 6 carbon. An aldehyde reacts with an alcohol to form a cyclic hemiacetal.  The name pyranose is due to its similarity to pyran<ref>Berg J., Tymoczko J and Stryer L. (2011) Biochemistry, 7th edition, New York: WH Freeman. pg 332</ref>. Pyranose can have two different conformation namely; chair and boat. 

=== References ===

<references />

Berg J., Tymoczko J and Stryer L. (2011) Biochemistry, 7th edition, New York: WH Freeman. pg 334

Pyranose

2012-11-30T16:04:51Z

130006699:

A pyranose is a [[Carbohydrate|carbohydrate]] [[Monosaccharide|monossaccharide]] that is a six-membered (6 [[Carbon|carbon]]) ring. It is formed form a straight chain compound tha has 6 carbon. An aldehyde reacts with an alcohol to form a cyclic hemiacetal.  The name pyranose is due to its similarity to pyran<ref>Berg J., Tymoczko J and Stryer L. (2011) Biochemistry, 7th edition, New York: WH Freeman. pg 332</ref>. Pyranose can have two different conformation namely; chair and boat. 

=== References ===

<references />

Intragenic suppression

2012-11-30T15:58:14Z

130006699:

Intragenic suppression is what is used to reverse frameshift mutation (e.g occurs in E.coli). There are different types of intragenic suppression. The first type happens if there is an addition of a nucleotide to the mRNA, a deletion of a second nucleotide pair near the area where the addition occurred would nullify the effect. The reverse would be the case if there is a deletion of a nucleotide.

When a mutation like base substitution causes a change in the function of a protein, the second type of suppression helps to reverse this type of mutation. It does this by causing a mutation in another amino acid close to the area where the base substitution occured in the same protein.

=== REFERENCES ===

<references />

Daniel L. Hartl and Maryellen Ruvolo, (2012), Genetics: analysis of genes and genomes, 8th Edition: Page 555, Burlington, Jones & Bartlett Learning

Intragenic suppression

2012-11-30T15:52:45Z

130006699: Created page with "Intragenic suppression is what is used to reverse frameshift mutation. There are different types of intragenic suppression. The first type happens if there is an addition of a nu..."

Intragenic suppression is what is used to reverse frameshift mutation. There are different types of intragenic suppression. The first type happens if there is an addition of a nucleotide to the mRNA, a deletion of a second nucleotide pair near the area where the addition occurred would nullify the effect. The reverse would be the case if there is a deletion of a nucleotide.

When a mutation like base substitution causes a change in the function of a protein, the second type of suppression helps to reverse this type of mutation. It does this by causing a mutation in another amino acid close to the area where the base substitution occured in the same protein.

=== REFERENCES ===

<references />

Daniel L. Hartl and Maryellen Ruvolo, (2012), Genetics: analysis of genes and genomes, 8th Edition: Page 555, Burlington, Jones & Bartlett Learning