The School of Biomedical Sciences Wiki - User contributions [en]

Fertilisation

2017-10-20T15:28:34Z

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Fertilisation is the fusion of a spermatozoon ([[Sperm|sperm]]) and an oocyte ([[Ovum|egg]]) to produce a [[Diploid|diploid]] [[Zygote|zygote]]. <ref>https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Fertilization Accessed: 20/10/2017 126h</ref>

 

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Fertilisation

2017-10-20T15:28:11Z

160084757:

Fertilisation is the fusion of a spermatozoon ([[Sperm|sperm]]) and an oocyte ([[Ovum|egg]]) to produce a [[Diploid|diploid]] [[Zygote|zygote]]. <ref>https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/FertilizationfckLRfckLR Accessed: 20/10/2017 126h</ref>

 

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Fertilisation

2017-10-20T15:27:39Z

160084757:

Fertilisation is the fusion of a spermatozoon ([[Sperm|sperm]]) and an oocyte ([[Ovum|egg]]) to produce a [[Diploid|diploid]] [[Zygote|zygote]]. <ref>https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/FertilizationfckLRfckLRAccessed: 20/10/2017 126h</ref>

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Fertilisation

2017-10-20T15:26:30Z

160084757: Created page with " Fertilisation is the fusion of a spermatozoon (sperm) and an oocyte (egg) to produce a diploid zygote. <ref>https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Fertiliz..."

Fertilisation is the fusion of a spermatozoon (sperm) and an oocyte (egg) to produce a diploid zygote.
<ref>https://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php/Fertilization

Accessed: 20/10/2017 126h</ref>

D-amino acids

2017-10-20T15:20:31Z

160084757: fixed typo

[[Amino acids|Amino acids]] can exsit in two [[Sterioisomeric form|sterioisomeric forms]], D-amino ([[Dextrorotatory|dextrorotatory]]) and[[L-amino|L-amino]] ([[Levorortatory|levorortatory]])<ref>Hardin J, Bertoni G, Kleinsmith L.J. Becker's World of the Cell, 8th ed. : Benjamin Cummings;</ref>. Most amio acid exist in the [[L-isomers|L-isomers]] form in living orgamisms. However in recent years with major technology advancements in science D-isomers have also been found in living things<ref>Polluzioni L. A World in the Mirror: D amino acids. http://www.d-aminoacids.com/Introduction/introduction.html (accessed 3 December 2016).</ref>. D-isomers are mainly found in bacteria in the [[Peptiodglycan cell wall|peptiodglycan cell wall]].

D-alanine and D-gluatmine are the main components in the peptiodclycan cell wall and can be asossiated with antibiotic resistance in bacteria<ref>Polluzioni L. A World in the Mirror: D amino acids. http://www.d-aminoacids.com/organisms/organisms.html (accessed 3 December 2016).</ref>.

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Glycoprotein

2017-10-20T14:10:15Z

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A glycoprotein is a membrane bound [[Protein|protein]] that has a [[Carbohydrate|carbohydrate]] attached to its extracellular surface.  The [[Carbohydrate|carbohydrate]] is a [[Oligosaccharide|oligosaccharide]] chain that is [[Covalent bond|covalently bonded]] to the [[Amino acid|amino acid]] side chain of the protein.  The chain can be of various lengths.  Glycoproteins and [[Glycolipids|glycolipids]] make up a carbohydrate rich region of the [[Plasma membrane|plasma membrane]] called the [[Glycocalyx|glycocalyx]], and serve to protect the cell <ref>Alberts, B. et al (2008) Molecular Biology of the Cell: 5th Edition, New York: Garland Science</ref>. 

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Genetic Map

2016-12-04T20:56:24Z

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Genetic Map is a diagrammatic view of the linear sequence of [[Genes|genes]] in a [[Chromosome|chromosome]] where the space between adjacent genes is corresponding to the rate of [[Recombination|recombination]] (result of crossing over between [[Homologous chromosomes|homologous chromosomes]]) between them. Genetic mapping has been a vital procedure to separate off and categorise the mutant genes which cause [[Hereditary disease|hereditary diseases]]. Once the position of [[Mutant gene|mutant gene]] has been located, then it can be used to identify the disease gene and to study its roles.

The unit of distance in genetic map is called a map unit (m.u.) or a centimorgan (cM).<ref>Daniel L. Hartl and Maryellen Ruvolo (2012), Genetics Analysis of Genes and Genomes; Jones & Bartlett Learning, 8th Edition</ref> The distance can be found by the equation (Number of recombinant organisms / Total number of organisms)*100.<ref>North Dakota State University, Phillip McClean. Recombination and Estimating the Distance Between Genes. 1997 [cited 4/12/2016] Available from: https://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc431/linkage/linkage2.htm</ref> 

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Spleen

2016-12-04T20:53:24Z

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The spleen is a lymphatic organ found in all vertebrates. It is similar in structure to a large lymph node. The spleen serves as a blood storage organ, storing blood during digestion and releasing it when it is finished.

 

The spleen also makes and destroys erythrocytes (red blood cells). Aging red blood cells are filtered out and broken down, just as in the liver; new red blood cells are generated just as in the bone marrow.<ref>http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/spleen.html</ref>

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Spleen

2016-12-04T20:53:07Z

160084757: Created page with " The spleen is a lymphatic organ found in all vertebrates. It is similar in structure to a large lymph node. The spleen serves as a blood storage organ, storing blood during..."

The spleen is a lymphatic organ found in all vertebrates. It is similar in structure to a large lymph node. The spleen serves as a blood storage organ, storing blood during digestion and releasing it when it is finished.

The spleen also makes and destroys erythrocytes (red blood cells). Aging red blood cells are filtered out and broken down, just as in the liver; new red blood cells are generated just as in the bone marrow.<ref>http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/spleen.html</ref>

Macromolecules

2016-12-04T20:43:40Z

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Macromolecules are long [[Polymer|polymeric]] [[Molecules|molecules]] formed by the combination (via [[Covalent bond|covalent bonds]]) of many individual units known as [[Monomers|monomers]]. Organic macromolecules important in the body are [[Polypeptides|polypeptides]] (composed of [[Amino acids|amino acids]]), [[Carbohydrates|carbohydrates]] (composed of [[Monosaccharide|mono]]/[[Disaccharides|disaccharides]]), [[Lipids|lipids]] (composed of a combination of [[Glycerol|glycerol]], [[Fatty acids|fatty acids]] and [[Phosphate|phosphates]]) and [[Nucleic acid|nucleic acids]] (composed of [[Nucleotides|nucleotides]]). Lipids are somewhat different from the others in that they do not possess the ability to form long chains of repeating units, but are limited to forming smaller molecules such as [[Triglycerides|triglycerides]].

The joining of the individual monomers to form macromolecules is achieved through condensation reactions, which are catalysed by [[Enzyme|enzymes]]. The process of macromolecule formation is vital to living organisms, as it allows the creation of the higher structures that are required for life to continue.

Macromolecules

2016-12-04T20:43:03Z

160084757:

Macromolecules are long [[Polymer|polymeric]] [[Molecules|molecules]] formed by the combination (via [[Covalent bond|covalent bonds]]) of many individual units known as [[Monomers|monomers]]. Organic macromolecules important in the body are [[Polypeptides|polypeptides]] (composed of [[Amino acids|amino acids]]), [[Carbohydrates|carbohydrates]] (composed of [[Monosaccharide|mono]]/[[Disaccharides|disaccharides]]), [[Lipids|lipids]] (composed of a combination of [[Glycerol|glycerol]], [[Fatty acids|fatty acids]] and [[Phosphate|phosphates]]) and [[Nucleic acid|nucleic acids]] (composed of [[Nucleotides|nucleotides]]). Lipids are somewhat different from the others in that they do not possess the ability to form long chains of repeating units, but are limited to forming smaller molecules such as [[Triglyceride|triglycerides]].

The joining of the individual monomers to form macromolecules is achieved through condensation reactions, which are catalysed by [[Enzyme|enzymes]]. The process of macromolecule formation is vital to living organisms, as it allows the creation of the higher structures that are required for life to continue.

Glycogen phosphorylase

2016-12-04T20:42:17Z

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Glycogen Phosphorylase is a [[Dimer|homodimeric]] [[Enzyme|enzyme]] which [[Catalyse|catalyses]] the breakdown of [[Glycogen|Glycogen]] into [[Glucose-1-Phosphate|Glucose-1-Phosphate]]. This is done by cleaving the 1-4 [[Glycosidic bond|Glycosidic]] linkage on the terminal [[Glucose-1-Phosphate|glucose]] monomer and adding a phosphate group to form Glucose-1-Phosphate<ref name="Glycogen Metabolism">https://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/glycogen.htm</ref>.

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Dimer

2016-12-04T20:41:35Z

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A dimer is a macromolecular complex comprised of two identical [[Macromolecules|sub-units]] bound together through identical binding sites<ref>B. Alberts, A Johnson, J. Lewis, M. Raff, K. Roberts and P. Walter 2002, Molecular Biology of The Cell, 4th Edition New York, Garland Science Taylor &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp; Francis Group P. 147</ref>. Possibly the most common dimers found are the [[Pyrimidine|pyrimdine]] dimers caused by ultraviolet irradiation from the sun, it causes two neighbouring pyrimdine bases in the [[Nucleotides|DNA nucleotide]] sequence to form bonds between each other thus causing a "distortion" in the DNA sequence and thus the [[DNA helix|DNA helix]]<ref>B. Alberts, A Johnson, J. Lewis, M. Raff, K. Roberts and P. Walter 2002, Molecular Biology of The Cell, 4th Edition New York, Garland Science Taylor &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp; Francis Group P. 269</ref>. Another well studied dimer is the Cro repressor protein, a molecule formed by two identical protein sub-units, which is used to regulate genes in bacteria<ref>B. Alberts, A Johnson, J. Lewis, M. Raff, K. Roberts and P. Walter 2002, Molecular Biology of The Cell, 4th Edition New York, Garland Science Taylor &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp; Francis Group P. 147</ref>. 

 

== Types of dimer ==

=== Homodimer ===

A homodimer is a dimer consisting of two identical macromolecules, 

=== Heterodimer ===

A heterodimer is a dimer consisting of two different macromolecules.

=== ===

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Dimer

2016-12-04T20:41:21Z

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A dimer is a macromolecular complex comprised of two identical [[Macromolecules|sub-units]] bound together through identical binding sites<ref>B. Alberts, A Johnson, J. Lewis, M. Raff, K. Roberts and P. Walter 2002, Molecular Biology of The Cell, 4th Edition New York, Garland Science Taylor &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp; Francis Group P. 147</ref>. Possibly the most common dimers found are the [[Pyrimidine|pyrimdine]] dimers caused by ultraviolet irradiation from the sun, it causes two neighbouring pyrimdine bases in the [[Nucleotides|DNA nucleotide]] sequence to form bonds between each other thus causing a "distortion" in the DNA sequence and thus the [[DNA helix|DNA helix]]<ref>B. Alberts, A Johnson, J. Lewis, M. Raff, K. Roberts and P. Walter 2002, Molecular Biology of The Cell, 4th Edition New York, Garland Science Taylor &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp; Francis Group P. 269</ref>. Another well studied dimer is the Cro repressor protein, a molecule formed by two identical protein sub-units, which is used to regulate genes in bacteria<ref>B. Alberts, A Johnson, J. Lewis, M. Raff, K. Roberts and P. Walter 2002, Molecular Biology of The Cell, 4th Edition New York, Garland Science Taylor &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp; Francis Group P. 147</ref>. 

 

== Types of dimer ==

=== Homodimer ===

A homodimer is a dimer consisting of two identical macromolecules, 

=== ===

=== Heterodimer ===

A heterodimer is a dimer consisting of two different macromolecules.

=== ===

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Restriction endonucleases

2016-12-04T20:37:31Z

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Restriction endonucleases recognise specific base pairs within [[DNA|DNA]] sequences where they exhibit [[Enzyme|enzymatic activity]] through the cleaving of DNA into smaller fragments. They are found in [[Bacteria|bacteria]] and it is thought that their original biological role was to protect the DNA of the [[Bacteria|bacteria]] within which they were contained from being infected by viral DNA by cleaving it before it could cause damage. Different restriction endonucleases are specific to different sequences (they can recognise sequence anywhere from 4-8 base pairs in length) and this results in a variety of fragment lengths being produced depending upon which restriction [[Enzyme|enzyme]] is used. Restriction endonucleases cleave both strands of double stranded DNA by cutting a nucleotide between a 3'-OH group and a phosphate (the [[Phosphodiester bond|phosphodiester bond]] found in DNA) and always produce fragments with a 5' phosphate and a 3'-OH. Some restriction endonucleases cut at the symmetry centre of the sequence they are specific for and produce what is know as a [[Blunt ends|'blunt end]]', ie. it has no overhang of single stranded DNA. Others produce what we call '[[‘sticky’ ends|sticky or cohesive ends]]' in which a single stranded overhang is produced. These cohesive strands are what give restriction endonucleases their role in producing [[Recombinant DNA Technology|recombinant DNA]] as any two peices of DNA (including those from different [[Genome|genomes]]) that have been cut with the same restriction endonuclease will have the same 'sticky ends' and therefore be complementary to each other, enabling complementary base pair binging under the right conditions <ref>Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K and Walter P. (2008) Molecular Biology of the Cell, Fifth Edition, New York, Garland Science.</ref>. 

There are four major types of restriction endonucleases: Type I,II,III and IV which are summarisedc below:

*Type I restriction endonulceases, which are also known as ATP-dependent [[DNAase|DNases]]<ref>http://www.ebi.ac.uk/intenz/query?cmd=SearchEC&amp;amp;ec=3.1.21.3</ref>, cut double stranded DNA at random points far off from the restriction site, the site of cleavge can be as far as 1000bp from the restriction site. Cleavge is always coupled to ATP hydorlysis and these enzymes are seen as being multifunctional proteins as they can aid in restriction and methylation of substrates<ref>http://www.ebi.ac.uk/intenz/query?cmd=SearchEC&amp;amp;ec=3.1.21.3</ref>.
*Type II restriction endonucleases are the most commonly used for DNA anaylsis as mentioned above. They are a very diverse with most being either [[Dimer|homodimeric]] or [[Tetrameric|tetrameric]] which (unlike type I) cleave the DNA at the restriction sites. In addition, they require [[Magnesium|Mg2+]] ions to carry out restriction<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15770420</ref>.
*Type III restriction endonucleases are found in most bacteria, especially in pathogenic strands<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23863841</ref> . These cleave DNA which is present a short disatnce away from the restriction site. Like type I they require [[ATP|ATP]] but this is not hydrolysed during the reaction<ref>http://www.ebi.ac.uk/intenz/query?cmd=SearchEC&amp;amp;ec=3.1.21.5</ref>.
*Type IV restriction endonucleases recognise methylate DNA<ref>http://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/entry/IPR011336</ref>. They are not commonly used for DNA analysis. 

Also see [[Restriction enzyme|Restriction enzyme]]

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Peristalsis

2016-12-04T20:34:05Z

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This is the movement of circular and longitudinal [[Muscle|muscles]] within some organs. Peristalsis can be seen making a wavelike pattern, extending hollow tubes of organs, to move objects in or out of the system. It mainly occurs in the [[Stomach|stomach]], intestines and [[Oesophagus|oesophagus]]<ref>(n.d.). Peristalsis. [Online], Available: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/452053/peristalsis. Last accessed 29/11/13.</ref>. However, in some organisms, instead of moving a bolus of food, peristaltic wave motion may propel an entire organism. This is the case for [[Earthworm|earthworms]]<ref>(n.d.). Earthworm - Muscular System [Online], Available: http://www.angelfire.com/de2/atoy/mus.htm. Last accessed 29/11/13.</ref>.

Peristalsis is under the influence of the [[Autonomic Nervous System|autonomic nervous system]] and so is involuntary. Depending on the purpose and location, there can be two types of peristaltic waves. One can be a short, local reflex or a long, continuous contraction that spans the entire length of an organ<ref>(n.d.). Peristalsis. [Online], Available: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/452053/peristalsis. Last accessed 29/11/13.</ref>. 

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Trachea

2016-12-04T20:33:26Z

160084757:

The trachea, also known as the windpipe, is a long, broad tube located in the body. It is a hollow pipe and functions to join the [[Larynx|larynx]] with the bronchi of [[Lungs|lungs]] to form an important part in the body's [[Respiratory system|respiratory system]] as it gives air flow back and forth from the lungs'''<ref>Anatomy Of the trachea. http://www.innerbody.com/image_card06/card13.html#full-description</ref>'''. The extent of the trachea is from sixth cervicle vertebrae until the fifth thoracic vertebrae. At this level, the trachea branches out to form two bronchi for each lungs. Histologically, it is made up of hyaline cartilages (C shaped) and membranes comprising of the fibrous membrane and the mucous membrane . It is located in the superior mediastinum<ref>Reference to trachea. Anatomy of the human body, by Henry Gray. http://www.bartleby.com/107/237.html</ref>. 

The trachea is related anteriorly by

#isthmus of thyroid gland
#inferior thyroid veins
#thyroidea ima artery
#sternothyroid and sternohyoid muscle
#cervical fascia
#anastomoses of anterior jugular veins

The trachea is related posteriorly by [[Oesophagus|oesophagus]]. It is related laterally to the common [[Carotid artery|carotid arteries]], lobes if [[Thyroid gland|thyroid glands]], inferior thyroid arteries and recurrent nerves. The pleura and right vagus is in its right relations while the left recurrent nerve, aortic arch, left common carotid and subclavian arteries are related to its left<ref>Reference to trachea. Anatomy of the human body, by Henry Gray. http://www.bartleby.com/107/237.html</ref>. 

The arterial supply is by inferior thyroid arteries. Venous drainage is in the thryoid venous plexus. The vagus nerve and recurrent nerves are its nervous supply<ref>Reference to trachea. Anatomy of the human body, by Henry Gray. http://www.bartleby.com/107/237.html</ref>

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Peristalsis

2016-12-04T20:32:49Z

160084757:

This is the movement of circular and longitudinal [[Muscle|muscles]] within some organs. Peristalsis can be seen making a wavelike pattern, extending hollow tubes of organs, to move objects in or out of the system. It mainly occurs in the [[Stomach|stomach]], intestines and [[Oesophagus|esophagus]]<ref>(n.d.). Peristalsis. [Online], Available: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/452053/peristalsis. Last accessed 29/11/13.</ref>. However, in some organisms, instead of moving a bolus of food, peristaltic wave motion may propel an entire organism. This is the case for [[Earthworm|earthworms]]<ref>(n.d.). Earthworm - Muscular System [Online], Available: http://www.angelfire.com/de2/atoy/mus.htm. Last accessed 29/11/13.</ref>.

Peristalsis is under the influence of the [[Autonomic Nervous System|autonomic nervous system]] and so is involuntary. Depending on the purpose and location, there can be two types of peristaltic waves. One can be a short, local reflex or a long, continuous contraction that spans the entire length of an organ<ref>(n.d.). Peristalsis. [Online], Available: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/452053/peristalsis. Last accessed 29/11/13.</ref>. 

=== References ===

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Trachea

2016-12-04T20:32:24Z

160084757:

The trachea, also known as the windpipe, is a long, broad tube located in the body. It is a hollow pipe and functions to join the [[Larynx|larynx]] with the bronchi of [[Lungs|lungs]] to form an important part in the body's [[Respiratory system|respiratory system]] as it gives air flow back and forth from the lungs'''<ref>Anatomy Of the trachea. http://www.innerbody.com/image_card06/card13.html#full-description</ref>'''. The extent of the trachea is from sixth cervicle vertebrae until the fifth thoracic vertebrae. At this level, the trachea branches out to form two bronchi for each lungs. Histologically, it is made up of hyaline cartilages (C shaped) and membranes comprising of the fibrous membrane and the mucous membrane . It is located in the superior mediastinum<ref>Reference to trachea. Anatomy of the human body, by Henry Gray. http://www.bartleby.com/107/237.html</ref>. 

The trachea is related anteriorly by

#isthmus of thyroid gland
#inferior thyroid veins
#thyroidea ima artery
#sternothyroid and sternohyoid muscle
#cervical fascia
#anastomoses of anterior jugular veins

The trachea is related posteriorly by [[Oesophagus|esophagus]]. It is related laterally to the common [[Carotid artery|carotid arteries]], lobes if [[Thyroid gland|thyroid glands]], inferior thyroid arteries and recurrent nerves. The pleura and right vagus is in its right relations while the left recurrent nerve, aortic arch, left common carotid and subclavian arteries are related to its left<ref>Reference to trachea. Anatomy of the human body, by Henry Gray. http://www.bartleby.com/107/237.html</ref>. 

The arterial supply is by inferior thyroid arteries. Venous drainage is in the thryoid venous plexus. The vagus nerve and recurrent nerves are its nervous supply<ref>Reference to trachea. Anatomy of the human body, by Henry Gray. http://www.bartleby.com/107/237.html</ref>

=== References ===

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Endonucleases

2016-12-04T20:25:31Z

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A class of [[Nucleases|nuclease]] which [[Hydrolysis|hydrolyses]] the middle of the [[Polynucleotide Chain|polynucleotide chain]] of a [[Nucleic acids|nucleic acid]]<ref>Alberts B [et al] (2008) Molecular Biology of the Cell, Fifth Edition, New York:Garland Science</ref>, by cleavage of the [[Phosphodiester bond|phosphodiester bond]]. Endonucleases can be non-specific (cleaving indiscriminately along the polynucleotide) or they can be specific, cutting at certain sites which are recognised by the [[Enzyme|enzyme]]; these are called [[Restriction endonucleases|restriction endonucleases]].<ref>Cox M, Nelson DR, Lehninger AL (2005). Lehninger principles of biochemistry. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. p. 952.</ref>

=== References ===

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Endonuclease

2016-12-04T20:21:10Z

160084757: Undo revision 16849 by 160084757 (talk)

Endonuclease is a type of [[Restriction enzyme|restriction enzyme]]. There are two kinds of restriction enzymes, there is Endonuclease and [[Exonuclease|Exonuclease]]. Exonuclease digests the ends of [[DNA|DNA]] whereas Endonuclease digests in-between the ends.

Endonuclease

2016-12-04T20:20:43Z

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Genetic Map

2016-12-04T20:16:14Z

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Genetic Map is a diagrammatic view of the linear sequence of [[Genes|genes]] in a [[Chromosome|chromosome]] where the space between adjacent genes is corresponding to the rate of [[Recombination|recombination]] (result of crossing over between [[Homologous chromosomes|homologous chromosomes]]) between them. Genetic mapping has been a vital procedure to separate off and categorise the mutant genes which cause [[Hereditary disease|hereditary diseases]]. Once the position of [[Mutant gene|mutant gene]] has been located, then it can be used to identify the disease gene and to study its roles.

The unit of distance in genetic map is called a map unit (m.u.) or a centimorgan (cM).<ref>Daniel L. Hartl and Maryellen Ruvolo (2012), Genetics Analysis of Genes and Genomes; Jones &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp;amp; Bartlett Learning, 8th Edition</ref> The distance can be found by the equation (Number of recombinant organisms / Total number of organisms)*100.<ref>North Dakota State University, Phillip McClean. Recombination and Estimating the Distance Between Genes. 1997 [cited 4/12/2016] Available from: https://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc431/linkage/linkage2.htm</ref> 

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