The School of Biomedical Sciences Wiki - User contributions [en]

Daughter cells

2018-10-22T21:58:44Z

170075567: There is already a better page for this exact description, I have added a link to take people there.

See [[Daughter_cell|Daughter cell]].

Breast Cancer

2017-12-06T12:15:10Z

170075567: added references and more information

A breast cancer is a malignant collection of cells that form a tumour, originating from one of the cells in the breast. ‘Breast cancer’ refers to several types of cancer of the breast, with ductal carcinoma<ref>National Cancer Institute. (2017). Breast Cancer. [online] Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast [Accessed 6 Dec. 2017].</ref> being the most common.

There are two main types of breast [[Cancer|cancer]] which are due to a single [[Gene|gene]] mutation in genes which code for DNA repair proteins [[BRCA-1|BRCA-1]] and [[BRCA-2|BRCA-2]]. These are both [[Tumour-suppressor genes|tumour-suppressor genes]] and are key parts of the [[DNA-break repair system|DNA-break repair systems]], therefore they are unable to repair [[DNA|DNA]] where the [[Homologous chromosome|homologous chromosome]] is providing template repair. These 2 proteins are [[Accessory protein|accessory proteins]] - they are non-essential for [[Homologous recombination|homologous recombination]] (if they were essential the cell would undergo [[Apoptosis|apoptosis]]). Instead, there is a gradual build-up of damage to the DNA due to these mutated proteins not properly repairing the DNA. If a women inherits one mutated [[Allele|allele]] of [[BRCA-1|BRCA-1]], they have a 60% probability of developing breast cancer by the age of 50, compared with a 2% probability if a women has two normal [[Alleles|alleles]]. These statistics lend themselves to the genetic influence on [[Cancer|cancer]]. However most types of breast cancer are due to a several [[Penetrance|low penetrance genes]] instead as cancer is an example of a [[Polygenic disease|polygenic disease]], therefore it is a disease where many [[Gene|genes]] are involved.

The genetic prediction of breast cancer susceptibility is varied depending on which type of breast cancer we are talking about, advice can be given to those with a family history due to [[BRCA-1|BRCA-1]] or [[BRCA-2|BRCA-2]]. But for other types of breast [[Cancer|cancer]] it is hard to advise women on their risk due to so many factors and the effects of individual’s [[Polymorphism|polymorphisms]] <ref>Alberts et al (2008) Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th Edition, New York: Garland Science. Chapter 5, page 310</ref> <ref>Alberts, Johnson, Lewis, Raff, Roberts and Walter (2008) Molecular Biology of The Cell, fifth edition, New York: Garland Science.</ref> <ref>Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Scott and Bretscher (2008) Molecular Cell Biology, sixth edition, New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.</ref>.

=== References ===

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Retinitis Pigmentosa

2017-12-06T12:01:27Z

170075567:

Retinitis Pigmentosa is a rare inherited eye disease leading to the death of the [[Rod photoreceptors|rod photoreceptors]] and subsequent death of the cones due to [[Oxidative damage|oxidative damage]], resulting in blindness. Several mutations, particularly in the gene coding for [[Rhodopsin|rhodopsin]], have been found to cause Retinitis Pigmentosa.  It can be inherited as an [[Autosomal dominant|autosomal dominant]], autosomal recessive, or X-linked recessive disorder<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein/4506527</ref>.

Retinitis Pigmentosa is an eye disease leading to the death of the rod photoreceptors and subsequent death of the cones due to oxidative damage, resulting in blindness. Several mutations have been found to cause Retinitis Pigmentosa; one of which is a mutation in the RHO gene of chromosome 3q22.

Retinitis pigmentosa is a disease that involves the break down of retina cells in the eye caused by a mutation in the RHO gene located on chromosome 3q22<ref>http://omim.org/entry/613731 cited 19/10/17</ref>. It can lead to loss of peripheral vision and weakened night vision<ref>https://nei.nih.gov/health/pigmentosa/pigmentosa_facts cited 19/10/17</ref>.

Treatment methods include: the suppression and replacement of the gene or using zinc finger transcription factors<ref>Farrar G.J., Millington-Ward S., Palfi A., Chadderton N., Kenna P.F. (2015) Gene Therapy for Dominantly Inherited Retinal Degeneration. In: Rakoczy E. (eds) Gene- and Cell-Based Treatment Strategies for the Eye. Essentials in Ophthalmology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg</ref>.

It has recently been concluded that N-acetylcysteine might help prevents cone death in the retina<ref>Lee SY, Usui S, Zafar AB, Oveson BC, Jo YJ, Lu L, Masoudi S, Campochiaro PA., Nov 10, 2010, fckLRN-acetylcysteine promotes long-term survival of cones in a model of retinitis pigmentosa, found at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21069814</ref><ref>http://omim.org/entry/613731</ref>.

Retinitis Pigmentosa is usually diagnosed at a young age as a teen or a young adult.<ref>http://www.webmd.com/eye-health/retinitis-types-symptoms-treatment</ref>.

It has recently been concluded that [[N-acetylcysteine|N-acetylcysteine]] might help prevents cone death in the retina <ref>Lee SY, Usui S, Zafar AB, Oveson BC, Jo YJ, Lu L, Masoudi S, Campochiaro PA., Nov 10, 2010, Acetylcysteine promotes long-term survival of cones in a model of retinitis pigmentosa, retrieved from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21069814</ref>.

The result of mutations in the rhodopsin gene, affects between 16% to 35% of the Western population who suffer will from adRP ([[Autosomal dominant Retinitis Pigmentosa|autosomal dominant Retinitis Pigmentosa]])<ref>Beryozkin A, Levy G, Blumenfeld A, Meyer S, Namburi P, Morad Y, Gradstein L, Swaroop A, Banin E, Sharon D. (2016) Genetic Analysis of the Rhodopsin Gene Identifies a Mosaic Dominant Retinitis Pigmentosa Mutation in a Healthy Individual. Israel, Abstract, page 1</ref>.

Symptoms:

*Tunnel Vision
*Aversion to glare
*Blurred Vision 
*Loss of central vision (in more serious case)

=== Treatment ===

Although no effective treatments to cure the disease have been discovered, a number of studies have inferred that treating a patient with [[Antioxidants|antioxidants]] such as sizeable doses of Retinyl palmitate ([[Vitamin A palmitate|vitamin A palmitate]]) will slow down the progress of the disease. There are complications to this treatment, retinyl palmitate can cause serious damage to a patient's [[Liver|liver]], so treatment benefits have to be weighed against the risks. 

=== References ===

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Retinitis

2017-12-06T12:00:46Z

170075567:

Retinitis is inflammation of the [[Retina|retina]]. This causes a damage in the retina, which may result in night blindness and other serious diseases such as [[Retinitis pigmentosa|retinitis pigmentosa]].

Retinitis is caused by an [[Autosomal dominant|autosomal dominant]], recessive or via x-linked [[Mutation|mutation]] in the gene. There are a variety of [[Point mutation|point mutations]], which can cause [[Retinitis_Pigmentosa|retinitis pigmentosa ]]causing a base change and therefore changes in the amino acid sequence <ref>http://omim.org/entry/180380</ref>.

Furthermore, this, in turn, damages the rods and cones of the [[Photoreceptors|photoreceptors]] in the eye. This may enhance the damage of the sight and also reduce the function for the [[Rhodopsin|rhodopsin]] to be activated by light.

The disease of [[Retinitis pigmentosa|retinitis pigmentosa]] may be cured by eating food which is rich in [[Vitamin A|Vitamin A]], this recover the eyes to be functional in terms of getting the inside rhodopsin and other [[Protein kinase|protein kinase]] to do the cycles.

=== References ===

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Hydrochloric acid

2017-12-06T11:56:25Z

170075567:

'''Hydrochloric acid '''is a strong corrosive acid that is commonly used as a laboratory reagent. It is formed by dissolving hydrogen chloride in water. Gastric acid is the hydrochloric acid component of gastric juice. Molecular formula HCL<ref>Source: ILO-ICSCfckLRRecord Name: HYDROGEN CHLORIDEfckLRURL: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/icsc/showcard.display?p_card_id=0163fckLRDescription: International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSC) are data sheets intended to provide essential safety and health information on chemicals in a clear and concise way.Peer-Review Status: 04.10.2000 Validated</ref>, the acid is [[Monoprotic|monoprotic]]- one proton is able dissociate from the molecule to lower [[PH|pH]]. It is a strong Brønsted–Lowry [[Acid|acid]] as it has a high Ka<ref>http://www.chembuddy.com/?left=BATE&amp;amp;right=dissociation_constants</ref> and donates a [[Proton|proton]].<ref>https://www.boundless.com/chemistry/textbooks/boundless-chemistry-textbook/acids-and-bases-15/acids-and-bases-107/the-bronsted-lowry-definition-of-acids-and-bases-450-8397/</ref> '''HCL''' is routinely used in chemical research laboratories and manufacturing plants. Its applications include the large-scale production of certain compounds (such as vinyl chloride for polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic), removal of rust and scale from metals, petroleum production, and ore processing. How HCL dissociates in [[Water|water]]: '''HCl + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + Cl− <ref>http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Hydrochloric_acid</ref>'''

=== References ===

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Tongue

2017-12-06T11:49:58Z

170075567:

The tongue is a [[sensory organ|sensory organ]] primarily involved in taste, as well as aiding in swallowing, vocalisation and manipulating food matter during mastication. The tongue is located inside the mouth, tethered to the floor of the mouth by the frenulum, and extends down the throat where it is anchored by the hyoid bone. It is covered by a moist tissue called the mucosa, as well as papillae which are where the taste buds are held.

Tongue

2017-12-06T11:48:47Z

170075567: created page

The tongue is a sensory organ primarily involved in taste, as well as aiding in swallowing, vocalisation and manipulating food matter during mastication. The tongue is located inside the mouth, tethered to the floor of the mouth by the frenulum, and extends down the throat where it is anchored by the hyoid bone. It is covered by a moist tissue called the mucosa, as well as papillae which are where the taste buds are held.

Electron

2017-12-03T21:04:28Z

170075567: changed some sentence structure and added a reference.

An electron is a [[Subatomic particle|subatomic particle]] with a negative charge. 

Electrons are the negatively charged part of an [[Atom|atom]], they exist outside the [[Nucleus|nucleus]], and are arranged into 'shells'. 

Removal or addition of electrons will alter the charge of an [[Atom|atom]] and form an [[Ion|ion]]. Electrons are also involved in [[Oxidation|oxidation]] and [[Reduction|reduction]] reactions. Oxidation involves the loss of an electron, while gaining an electron is a reduction process. Electrons are the smallest part of the [[Atom|atom]], carrying an [[Atomic mass|atomic mass]] roughly 1/1836 that of a proton<ref>Physics.nist.gov. (2017). CODATA Value: proton-electron mass ratio. [online] Available at: https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?mpsme [Accessed 3 Dec. 2017].</ref>.

Currently, there is no known substructure or components within an electron, therefore, electrons are described as 'elementary particles'.

Electrons are used in [[Electron Microscopy|Electron Microscopy]], of which there are two types; the [[Scanning electron microsope|Scanning Electron Microscope]] and the [[Transient Electron Microscope|Transient Electron Microscope]].

 

=== References ===

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