The School of Biomedical Sciences Wiki - User contributions [en]

Stimulus

2018-12-10T12:21:46Z

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A stimulus is a noticeable change in the internal or external [[Environment|environment]]. This provokes a response within an [[Organism|organism]]. A stimulus may not only be physiological, but also psychological, whereby an action of another individual directly affects the [[Behaviour|behaviour]] of another.

== ==

== Types of receptors in the human body. ==

Chemoreceptors, detect the presence of chemicals. Thermoreceptors on the other hand detect changes in temperature. Mechanoreceptors detect mechanical forces. Photoreceptors in the body, detect light during vision. <ref>Sensory Receptors | Boundless Anatomy and Physiology [Internet]. Courses.lumenlearning.com. 2018 [cited 10 December 2018]. Available from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/sensory-receptors/</ref>

=== '''References''' ===

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Stimulus

2018-12-10T12:21:28Z

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Vaccine

2018-12-10T12:15:12Z

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[[Image:07-blog-Vaccines.jpg]]<ref>Vaccines [Internet]. Vaccines for World’s Most Deadly Infectious Diseases Unlikely. 2018 [cited 2018Dec10]. Available from: http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2018/vaccines-worlds-deadly-infectious-diseases-unlikely/</ref>

A vaccine will allow an organism's [[Immune system|immune system]] to develop an active immunity against a certain [[Pathogen|pathogen]]<ref>NHS.04/04/2014, How vaccines work, [Online]Available at: http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vaccinations/pages/how-vaccines-work.aspx,[Accessed - 27/11/2014]</ref>.

Vaccines are prepared from the causative agent of a disease, or a synthetic substitute treated to act as an antigen without inducing the disease.

The vaccine will mimic the process of a natural [[Infection|infection]], however, the [[Organism|organism]] will not experience the effects of being infected by the [[Pathogen|pathogen]]<ref>U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.23/7/13, How Vaccines Work, [Online]Available at: http://www.vaccines.gov/more_info/work/ ,[Accessed - 27/11/2014]</ref>.

In order to safely develop [[Active immunity|active immunity]], the [[Pathogen|pathogen]] must first be altered in some way so that it will not be damaging to the target organism.

Processes that will render the [[Pathogen|pathogen]] harmless include:

*"Weakening, or "attenuating", the [[Pathogen|pathogen]] by growing it repeatedly to select a strain that's less dangerous – [[MMR vaccine|MMR vaccines]] are attenuated.
*Taking out the part of the [[Pathogen|pathogen]] that causes the immune response and using this in the vaccine –the [[Hib vaccine|Hib vaccine]] is made in this way.
*Using the [[Toxin|toxin]] that the [[Pathogen|pathogen]] makes and inactivating it – this is how the [[Tetanus vaccine|tetanus vaccine]] is produced<ref>NHS.04/04/2014, How vaccines work, [Online]Available at: http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vaccinations/pages/how-vaccines-work.aspx,[Accessed - 27/11/2014]</ref>.

The vaccine (altered pathogens) is then inserted into the target organism. Its [[Immune system|Immune system]] will respond as the vaccine is seen as a threat. The[[Immune system|immune response]] will behave naturally and the vaccine will be destroyed, however the [[Memory T cells|Memory T]] and [[Memory B cells|Memory B]] cells will remember the pathogen's [[Antigen|antigen]] structure<ref>U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.23/7/13, How Vaccines Work, [Online]Available at: http://www.vaccines.gov/more_info/work/ ,[Accessed - 27/11/2014]</ref>.

This will allow a rapid immune response if the organism ever comes into contact with the [[Pathogen|pathogen]] again<ref>U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.23/7/13, How Vaccines Work, [Online]Available at: http://www.vaccines.gov/more_info/work/ ,[Accessed - 27/11/2014]</ref>. However for [[T lymphocytes|T]] and [[B-Lymphocyte|B lymphocytes]] to develop it can take a few weeks, therefore it is possible that if someone is infected with the pathogen within a few weeks of getting them vaccinated it is possible for them to have symptoms of the disease<ref>http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/patient-ed/conversations/downloads/vacsafe-understand-color-office.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/patient-ed/conversations/downloads/vacsafe-understand-color-office.pdf</ref>.

Conjugate vaccines have been designed to immunise young children against ''Haemophilus influenzae'' type b (Hib). Hib contains a polysaccharide capsule made of polyribosyl ribitol phosphate (PRP) which is a T-independent [[Antigen|antigen]] (thymus-independent) and is not immunogenic in children under the age of 4; therefore conjugate vaccines have been created to protect these individuals. The PRP capsule is covalently linked to a carrier protein, which attracts [[T-cells|T cell]] help and, as a result, anti-PRP [[Antibodies|antibodies]] are produced. This means a second encounter of this polysaccharide on Hib would induce a rapid reaction to clear and destroy this pathogen<ref>Dominic F Kelly, E Richard Moxon, Andrew J Pollard. (2004) Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccines. Immunology. Vol.113(2), 163-174.</ref>.

=== References ===

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File:07-blog-Vaccines.jpg

2018-12-10T12:13:06Z

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16S rRNA

2018-12-10T12:11:50Z

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[[Image:16s_rna.gif]]
<ref>16S RNA Structure [Internet]. Use of 16S rRNA and rpoB Genes as Molecular Markers for Microbial Ecology Studies. American Society for Microbiology Journals; 2006 [cited 2018Dec10]. Available from: https://aem.asm.org/content/73/1/278/figures-only</ref>
16S rRNA is found within the 30S [[RRNA|rRNA]] sub-unit of ribosomes. 16S rRNA contains a ribosomal binding site, known as the [[Shine dalgarno|Shine Dalgarno]] sequence. During translation of [[Protein synthesis|protein synthesis]], the initiator region of [[MRNA|mRNA]] binds very near the 3' end of the 16S rRNA at the [[Shine dalgarno|Shine Dalgarno]] sequence. The number of base pairs linking mRNA and 16S rRNA ranges from three to nine<ref>Alberts, B et al. (2008) The Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th Ed., New York: Garland Science, Taylor &amp;amp;amp;amp; Francis Group, LLC.</ref>.     

=== References ===

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File:16s rna.gif

2018-12-10T12:08:02Z

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Catalyst

2018-12-10T12:05:59Z

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A catalyst is a substance that can be in a solid, liquid or gaseous form. The aim of a catalyst is to increase the [[Rate of reaction|rate of a reaction]] by lowering the activation [[Enthalpy|enthalpy]] of a [[Reaction|reaction]]. Meaning a higher majority of the [[Atoms|atoms]] or [[Molecules|molecules]] can react, so more product is formed from reactants. A catalyst itself is unchanged at the end of a reaction, therefore, can be re used. <ref>Hamers L. Explainer: What is a catalyst? [Internet]. Science News for Students. 2018 [cited 10 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/explainer-catalyst-chemistry</ref>

See [[Catalysis|Catalysis]].

 

=== '''''References''''' ===

'''''<references />'''''

Catalyst

2018-12-10T12:05:34Z

170493978:

A catalyst is a substance that can be in a solid, liquid or gaseous form. The aim of a catalyst is to increase the [[Rate of reaction|rate of a reaction]] by lowering the activation [[Enthalpy|enthalpy]] of a [[Reaction|reaction]]. Meaning a higher majority of the [[Atoms|atoms]] or [[Molecules|molecules]] can react, so more product is formed from reactants. A catalyst itself is unchanged at the end of a reaction, therefore, can be re used. <ref>Hamers L. Explainer: What is a catalyst? [Internet]. Science News for Students. 2018 [cited 10 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/explainer-catalyst-chemistry</ref>

See [[Catalysis|Catalysis]].

=== '''''References''''' ===

'''''Hamers L. Explainer: What is a catalyst? [Internet]. Science News for Students. 2018 [cited 10 December 2018]. Available from: https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/explainer-catalyst-chemistry'''''

Cervical canal

2018-12-10T12:01:13Z

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[[Image:Screenshot 2018-12-10 at 11.28.12.png]]<ref>Check S. [Internet]. Structure &amp;amp;amp; Function. [cited 2018Dec10]. Available from: https://www.haad.ae/simplycheck/tabid/71/default.aspx</ref>

 The uterus is made up of a body and a [[Cervix|cervix]]. The cervix communicates superiorly with the uterine cavity through the internal orifice (known as internal os an communicates inferiorly with the [[Vagina|vagina]] at the external orifice (known as the external os).<ref>Cervical Canal • Reproductive • AnatomyZone [Internet]. AnatomyZone. 2018 [cited 10 December 2018]. Available from: http://anatomyzone.com/anatomy-feed/cervical-canal/</ref>

The cervical canal is the narrow passage which runs through the cervix, which is what connects the vagine to the [[Uterus|uterus]]. It is the lower most part of the uterus and is consists of strong muscles.

The cervix directs the [[Sperm|sperm]] to the uterus during sexual intercourse, as well as allowing the flow of menstrual blood from the uterus into the [[Vagina|vagina]]. 

The opening of the cervical canal is usually narrow, however pressure from from the fetal head as well as [[Hormones|hormones]] found in the body can cause this opening to widen to about 4 inches. To allow the birth of a baby, the opening widens as well.<ref>Check S. [Internet]. Structure &amp;amp;amp;amp; Function. [cited 2018Dec10]. Available from: https://www.haad.ae/simplycheck/tabid/71/default.aspx</ref>

 

 

= '''References'''  =

<references />

Cervical canal

2018-12-10T11:57:53Z

170493978:

[[Image:Screenshot 2018-12-10 at 11.28.12.png]]<ref>Check S. [Internet]. Structure &amp;amp; Function. [cited 2018Dec10]. Available from: https://www.haad.ae/simplycheck/tabid/71/default.aspx</ref>

 The uterus is made up of a body and a cervix. The cervix communicates superiorly with the uterine cavity through the internal orifice (known as internal os an communicates inferiorly with the vagina at the external orifice (known as the external os).<ref>Cervical Canal • Reproductive • AnatomyZone [Internet]. AnatomyZone. 2018 [cited 10 December 2018]. Available from: http://anatomyzone.com/anatomy-feed/cervical-canal/</ref>

The cervical canal is the narrow passage which runs through the cervix, which is what connects the vagine to the uterus. It is the lower most part of the uterus and is consists of strong muscles.

The cervix directs the sperm to the uterus during sexual intercourse, as well as allowing the flow of menstrual blood from the uterus into the vagina. 

The opening of the cervical canal is usually narrow, however pressure from from the fetal head as well as hormones found in the body can cause this opening to widen to about 4 inches. To allow the birth of a baby, the opening widens as well.<ref>Check S. [Internet]. Structure &amp;amp;amp; Function. [cited 2018Dec10]. Available from: https://www.haad.ae/simplycheck/tabid/71/default.aspx</ref>

 

 

= '''References'''  =

<references />

Cervical canal

2018-12-10T11:57:05Z

170493978:

<ref>Check S. [Internet]. Structure &amp; Function. [cited 2018Dec10]. Available from: https://www.haad.ae/simplycheck/tabid/71/default.aspx</ref>
[[Image:Screenshot 2018-12-10 at 11.28.12.png]]<ref>Check S. [Internet]. Structure &amp; Function. [cited 2018Dec10]. Available from: https://www.haad.ae/simplycheck/tabid/71/default.aspx</ref>

 The uterus is made up of a body and a cervix. The cervix communicates superiorly with the uterine cavity through the internal orifice (known as internal os an communicates inferiorly with the vagina at the external orifice (known as the external os).<ref>Cervical Canal • Reproductive • AnatomyZone [Internet]. AnatomyZone. 2018 [cited 10 December 2018]. Available from: http://anatomyzone.com/anatomy-feed/cervical-canal/</ref>

The cervical canal is the narrow passage which runs through the cervix, which is what connects the vagine to the uterus. It is the lower most part of the uterus and is consists of strong muscles.

The cervix directs the sperm to the uterus during sexual intercourse, as well as allowing the flow of menstrual blood from the uterus into the vagina. 

The opening of the cervical canal is usually narrow, however pressure from from the fetal head as well as hormones found in the body can cause this opening to widen to about 4 inches. To allow the birth of a baby, the opening widens as well.<ref>Check S. [Internet]. Structure &amp;amp; Function. [cited 2018Dec10]. Available from: https://www.haad.ae/simplycheck/tabid/71/default.aspx</ref>

 

 

= '''References'''  =

<references />

Cervical canal

2018-12-10T11:56:31Z

170493978:

[[Image:Screenshot_2018-12-10_at_11.28.12.png]]

 The uterus is made up of a body and a cervix. The cervix communicates superiorly with the uterine cavity through the internal orifice (known as internal os an communicates inferiorly with the vagina at the external orifice (known as the external os).<ref>Cervical Canal • Reproductive • AnatomyZone [Internet]. AnatomyZone. 2018 [cited 10 December 2018]. Available from: http://anatomyzone.com/anatomy-feed/cervical-canal/</ref>

The cervical canal is the narrow passage which runs through the cervix, which is what connects the vagine to the uterus. It is the lower most part of the uterus and is consists of strong muscles.

The cervix directs the sperm to the uterus during sexual intercourse, as well as allowing the flow of menstrual blood from the uterus into the vagina. 

The opening of the cervical canal is usually narrow, however pressure from from the fetal head as well as hormones found in the body can cause this opening to widen to about 4 inches. To allow the birth of a baby, the opening widens as well.<ref>Check S. [Internet]. Structure &amp; Function. [cited 2018Dec10]. Available from: https://www.haad.ae/simplycheck/tabid/71/default.aspx</ref>

 

 

= '''References'''  =

<references />

File:Screenshot 2018-12-10 at 11.28.12.png

2018-12-10T11:52:33Z

170493978: Female reproductive organs

Female reproductive organs

Cervical canal

2018-12-10T11:51:08Z

170493978:

The uterus is made up of a body and a cervix. The cervix communicates superiorly with the uterine cavity through the internal orifice (known as internal os an communicates inferiorly with the vagina at the external orifice (known as the external os).<ref>Cervical Canal • Reproductive • AnatomyZone [Internet]. AnatomyZone. 2018 [cited 10 December 2018]. Available from: http://anatomyzone.com/anatomy-feed/cervical-canal/</ref>

The cervical canal is the narrow passage which runs through the cervix, which is what connects the vagine to the uterus. It is the lower most part of the uterus and is consists of strong muscles.

The cervix directs the sperm to the uterus during sexual intercourse, as well as allowing the flow of menstrual blood from the uterus into the vagina. 

The opening of the cervical canal is usually narrow, however pressure from from the fetal head as well as hormones found in the body can cause this opening to widen to about 4 inches. To allow the birth of a baby, the opening widens as well.<ref>Check S. [Internet]. Structure & Function. [cited 2018Dec10]. Available from: https://www.haad.ae/simplycheck/tabid/71/default.aspx</ref>

 

 

= '''References'''  =

<references />

Cervical canal

2018-12-10T11:46:54Z

170493978:

The uterus is made up of a body and a cervix. The cervix communicates superiorly with the uterine cavity through the internal orifice (known as internal os an communicates inferiorly with the vagina at the external orifice (known as the external os).<ref>Cervical Canal • Reproductive • AnatomyZone [Internet]. AnatomyZone. 2018 [cited 10 December 2018]. Available from: http://anatomyzone.com/anatomy-feed/cervical-canal/</ref>

The cervical canal is the narrow passage which runs through the cervix, which is what connects the vagine to the uterus. It is the lower most part of the uterus and is consists of strong muscles.

The cervix directs the sperm to the uterus during sexual intercourse, as well as allowing the flow of menstrual blood from the uterus into the vagina. 

The opening of the cervical canal is usually narrow, however pressure from from the fetal head as well as hormones found in the body can cause this opening to widen to about 4 inches. To allow the birth of a baby, the opening widens as well.

If the opening is loose, as observed in some women, it can lead to miscarriages during pregnancy. 

= '''References'''  =

<references />

Cervical canal

2018-12-10T11:42:13Z

170493978: Created page with " The uterus is made up of a body and a cervix. The cervix communicates superiorly with the uterine cavity through the internal orifice (known as internal os an communicates ..."

The uterus is made up of a body and a cervix. The cervix communicates superiorly with the uterine cavity through the internal orifice (known as internal os an communicates inferiorly with the vagina at the external orifice (known as the external os).

The cervical canal is the narrow passage which runs through the cervix, which is what connects the vagine to the uterus. It is the lower most part of the uterus and is consists of strong muscles.

The cervix directs the sperm to the uterus during sexual intercourse, as well as allowing the flow of menstrual blood from the uterus into the vagina. 

The opening of the cervical canal is usually narrow, however pressure from from the fetal head as well as hormones found in the body can cause this opening to widen to about 4 inches. To allow the birth of a baby, the opening widens as well.

If the opening is loose, as observed in some women, it can lead to miscarriages during pregnancy.