The School of Biomedical Sciences Wiki - User contributions [en]

High blood pressure

2018-12-09T17:06:24Z

170804820: Created page with " High blood pressure, also known as hypertension, is when the pressure of the blood pumped around the body is at an unhealthy and increased level.<ref>hypertension</ref> The..."

High blood pressure, also known as hypertension, is when the pressure of the blood pumped around the body is at an unhealthy and increased level.<ref>hypertension</ref> There are few noticeable symptoms but the risks are dangerous and can be fatal in the case of heart failure.<ref>heart failure</ref>

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

== References ==

<references />https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/high-blood-pressure-hypertension/

<references />https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/high-blood-pressure-hypertension/

Epinephrine

2018-12-06T20:13:32Z

170804820:

Epinephrine is also known as [[Adrenaline|adrenaline]]. It is a [[Steroid hormone|steroid hormone]] which is released by [[Chromaffin cells|chromaffin cells]] in the [[Adrenal gland|adrenal glands]] as part of the 'fight or flight' response. Epinephrine is an amino acid derivative of [[Tyrosine|tyrosine]] secreted from the [[Adrenal medulla|adrenal medulla]]. The polarity of the epinephrine [[Molecule|molecule]] allows it to bind to a stimulatory [[G-proteins|G protein]] which is coupled to [[Beta-adrenergenic receptor|Beta-adrenergenic receptors]] on the surface of the [[Liver|liver]]<ref>Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky S, Mastudaira P, Balitmore D, Darnell J, Molecular Cell Biology, Section 20.3, 4th edition, W.H. Freeman, 2000</ref>. Initially, the G protein is inactive with guanosine diphosphate ([[GDP|GDP]]) bound. Once epinephrine binds the GDP molecule is released and guanosine triphosphate ([[GTP|GTP]]) is attached, activating the G protein. The [[G protein alpha subunit|alpha subunit]] of the G protein binds to and activates [[Adenylyl cyclase|adenylyl cyclase]] catalysing the conversion of [[ATP|ATP]] to [[CAMP|cAMP]]. cAMP converts [[Phosphorylase α|phosphorylase α]] into [[Phosphorylase β|phosphorylase β]], activating protein kinase A ([[PKA|PKA]])<ref>Citric cycle, Krantz B, Principles of Biochemistry, “Principles of Metabolic Regulation” Chapter 15, Berkeley, 2008</ref>. PKA goes on to phosphorylate other target proteins making [[Glycogen synthase|glycogen synthase]] less active by [[Phosphorylation|phosphorylation]] using a phosphate from ATP resulting in less [[Glycogen|glycogen]] being synthesised<ref>Diwan J, Glycogen Metabolism, 2007 https://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/glycogen.htm, cited on 12/11/2016</ref>. PKA also adds a phosphate to [[Phosphorylase kinase|phosphorylase kinase]]<ref>Diwan J, Glycogen Metabolism, 2007 https://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/glycogen.htm, cited on 12/11/2016</ref>. This activates [[Glycogen phosphorylase|glycogen phosphorylase]], increasing breakdown of glycogen into [[Glucose|glucose]] releasing lots of energy rapidly. One epinephrine-binding molecule can cause activation of hundreds of phosphorylations through amplification of the cell signalling cascade and can produce a permanent change in [[Enzyme|enzyme]] molecules. This response can be induced by stress or other stimuli in the environment and causes many physiological effects such as increased heart rate, increased blood sugar levels (due to the conversion of [[Glycogen|glycogen]] to [[Glucose|glucose]] in the [[Liver|liver]]); increased breathing rate, constriction of peripheral blood vessels and dilation of the pupils<ref>Alberts et al. (2008:G2), Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th edition, New York: Garland Science</ref><ref>The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (2015). https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a603002.html date visited 20/10/2015</ref>.

Epinephrine injections can cause side effects such as :

*difficulty breathing
*pounding, fast, or irregular heartbeat
*nausea
*vomiting
*sweating
*dizziness
*nervousness, anxiety, or restlessness
*weakness
*pale skin
*headache
*uncontrollable shaking of a part of your body<ref>American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (2012). https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a603002.html</ref>

=== Reference ===

<references />.

Epinephrine

2018-12-06T20:13:10Z

170804820:

Epinephrine is also known as [[Adrenaline|adrenaline]]. It is a [[Steroid hormone|steroid hormone]] which is released by [[Chromaffin cells|chromaffin cells]] in the [[Adrenal gland|adrenal glands]] as part of the 'fight or flight' response. Epinephrine is an amino acid derivative of [[Tyrosine|tyrosine]] secreted from the [[Adrenal medulla|adrenal medulla]]. The polarity of the epinephrine [[Molecule|molecule]] allows it to bind to a stimulatory [[G-proteins|G protein]] which is coupled to [[Beta-adrenergenic receptor|Beta-adrenergenic receptors]] on the surface of the [[Liver|liver]]<ref>Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky S, Mastudaira P, Balitmore D, Darnell J, Molecular Cell Biology, Section 20.3, 4th edition, W.H. Freeman, 2000</ref>. Initially, the G protein is inactive with guanosine diphosphate ([[GDP|GDP]]) bound. Once epinephrine binds the GDP molecule is released and guanosine triphosphate ([[GTP|GTP]]) is attached, activating the G protein. The [[G protein alpha subunit|alpha subunit]] of the G protein binds to and activates [[Adenylyl cyclase|adenylyl cyclase]] catalysing the conversion of [[ATP|ATP]] to [[CAMP|cAMP]]. cAMP converts [[Phosphorylase α|phosphorylase α]] into [[Phosphorylase β|phosphorylase β]], activating protein kinase A ([[PKA|PKA]])<ref>Citric cycle, Krantz B, Principles of Biochemistry, “Principles of Metabolic Regulation” Chapter 15, Berkeley, 2008</ref>. PKA goes on to phosphorylate other target proteins making [[Glycogen synthase|glycogen synthase]] less active by [[Phosphorylation|phosphorylation]] using a phosphate from ATP resulting in less [[Glycogen|glycogen]] being synthesised<ref>Diwan J, Glycogen Metabolism, 2007 https://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/glycogen.htm, cited on 12/11/2016</ref>. PKA also adds a phosphate to [[Phosphorylase kinase|phosphorylase kinase]]<ref>Diwan J, Glycogen Metabolism, 2007 https://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/glycogen.htm, cited on 12/11/2016</ref>. This activates [[Glycogen phosphorylase|glycogen phosphorylase]], increasing breakdown of glycogen into [[Glucose|glucose]] releasing lots of energy rapidly. One epinephrine-binding molecule can cause activation of hundreds of phosphorylations through amplification of the cell signalling cascade and can produce a permanent change in [[Enzyme|enzyme]] molecules. This response can be induced by stress or other stimuli in the environment and causes many physiological effects such as increased heart rate, increased blood sugar levels (due to the conversion of [[Glycogen|glycogen]] to [[Glucose|glucose]] in the [[Liver|liver]]); increased breathing rate, constriction of peripheral blood vessels and dilation of the pupils<ref>Alberts et al. (2008:G2), Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th edition, New York: Garland Science</ref><ref>The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (2015). https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a603002.html date visited 20/10/2015</ref>. systole[https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systole <references />]

Epinephrine injections can cause side effects such as :

*difficulty breathing
*pounding, fast, or irregular heartbeat
*nausea
*vomiting
*sweating
*dizziness
*nervousness, anxiety, or restlessness
*weakness
*pale skin
*headache
*uncontrollable shaking of a part of your body<ref>American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (2012). https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a603002.html</ref>

=== Reference ===

<references />.

Epinephrine

2018-12-06T20:12:37Z

170804820:

Epinephrine is also known as [[Adrenaline|adrenaline]]. It is a [[Steroid hormone|steroid hormone]] which is released by [[Chromaffin cells|chromaffin cells]] in the [[Adrenal gland|adrenal glands]] as part of the 'fight or flight' response. Epinephrine is an amino acid derivative of [[Tyrosine|tyrosine]] secreted from the [[Adrenal medulla|adrenal medulla]]. The polarity of the epinephrine [[Molecule|molecule]] allows it to bind to a stimulatory [[G-proteins|G protein]] which is coupled to [[Beta-adrenergenic receptor|Beta-adrenergenic receptors]] on the surface of the [[Liver|liver]]<ref>Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky S, Mastudaira P, Balitmore D, Darnell J, Molecular Cell Biology, Section 20.3, 4th edition, W.H. Freeman, 2000</ref>. Initially, the G protein is inactive with guanosine diphosphate ([[GDP|GDP]]) bound. Once epinephrine binds the GDP molecule is released and guanosine triphosphate ([[GTP|GTP]]) is attached, activating the G protein. The [[G protein alpha subunit|alpha subunit]] of the G protein binds to and activates [[Adenylyl cyclase|adenylyl cyclase]] catalysing the conversion of [[ATP|ATP]] to [[CAMP|cAMP]]. cAMP converts [[Phosphorylase α|phosphorylase α]] into [[Phosphorylase β|phosphorylase β]], activating protein kinase A ([[PKA|PKA]])<ref>Citric cycle, Krantz B, Principles of Biochemistry, “Principles of Metabolic Regulation” Chapter 15, Berkeley, 2008</ref>. PKA goes on to phosphorylate other target proteins making [[Glycogen synthase|glycogen synthase]] less active by [[Phosphorylation|phosphorylation]] using a phosphate from ATP resulting in less [[Glycogen|glycogen]] being synthesised<ref>Diwan J, Glycogen Metabolism, 2007 https://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/glycogen.htm, cited on 12/11/2016</ref>. PKA also adds a phosphate to [[Phosphorylase kinase|phosphorylase kinase]]<ref>Diwan J, Glycogen Metabolism, 2007 https://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/glycogen.htm, cited on 12/11/2016</ref>. This activates [[Glycogen phosphorylase|glycogen phosphorylase]], increasing breakdown of glycogen into [[Glucose|glucose]] releasing lots of energy rapidly. One epinephrine-binding molecule can cause activation of hundreds of phosphorylations through amplification of the cell signalling cascade and can produce a permanent change in [[Enzyme|enzyme]] molecules. This response can be induced by stress or other stimuli in the environment and causes many physiological effects such as increased heart rate, increased blood sugar levels (due to the conversion of [[Glycogen|glycogen]] to [[Glucose|glucose]] in the [[Liver|liver]]); increased breathing rate, constriction of peripheral blood vessels and dilation of the pupils<ref>Alberts et al. (2008:G2), Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th edition, New York: Garland Science</ref><ref>The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (2015). https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a603002.html date visited 20/10/2015</ref>. systole<ref>systole</ref>[https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systole simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systole]

Epinephrine injections can cause side effects such as :

*difficulty breathing
*pounding, fast, or irregular heartbeat
*nausea
*vomiting
*sweating
*dizziness
*nervousness, anxiety, or restlessness
*weakness
*pale skin
*headache
*uncontrollable shaking of a part of your body<ref>American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (2012). https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a603002.html</ref>

=== Reference ===

<references />.

Epinephrine

2018-12-06T20:11:42Z

170804820:

Epinephrine is also known as [[Adrenaline|adrenaline]]. It is a [[Steroid hormone|steroid hormone]] which is released by [[Chromaffin cells|chromaffin cells]] in the [[Adrenal gland|adrenal glands]] as part of the 'fight or flight' response. Epinephrine is an amino acid derivative of [[Tyrosine|tyrosine]] secreted from the [[Adrenal medulla|adrenal medulla]]. The polarity of the epinephrine [[Molecule|molecule]] allows it to bind to a stimulatory [[G-proteins|G protein]] which is coupled to [[Beta-adrenergenic receptor|Beta-adrenergenic receptors]] on the surface of the [[Liver|liver]]<ref>Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky S, Mastudaira P, Balitmore D, Darnell J, Molecular Cell Biology, Section 20.3, 4th edition, W.H. Freeman, 2000</ref>. Initially, the G protein is inactive with guanosine diphosphate ([[GDP|GDP]]) bound. Once epinephrine binds the GDP molecule is released and guanosine triphosphate ([[GTP|GTP]]) is attached, activating the G protein. The [[G protein alpha subunit|alpha subunit]] of the G protein binds to and activates [[Adenylyl cyclase|adenylyl cyclase]] catalysing the conversion of [[ATP|ATP]] to [[CAMP|cAMP]]. cAMP converts [[Phosphorylase α|phosphorylase α]] into [[Phosphorylase β|phosphorylase β]], activating protein kinase A ([[PKA|PKA]])<ref>Citric cycle, Krantz B, Principles of Biochemistry, “Principles of Metabolic Regulation” Chapter 15, Berkeley, 2008</ref>. PKA goes on to phosphorylate other target proteins making [[Glycogen synthase|glycogen synthase]] less active by [[Phosphorylation|phosphorylation]] using a phosphate from ATP resulting in less [[Glycogen|glycogen]] being synthesised<ref>Diwan J, Glycogen Metabolism, 2007 https://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/glycogen.htm, cited on 12/11/2016</ref>. PKA also adds a phosphate to [[Phosphorylase kinase|phosphorylase kinase]]<ref>Diwan J, Glycogen Metabolism, 2007 https://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb1/part2/glycogen.htm, cited on 12/11/2016</ref>. This activates [[Glycogen phosphorylase|glycogen phosphorylase]], increasing breakdown of glycogen into [[Glucose|glucose]] releasing lots of energy rapidly. One epinephrine-binding molecule can cause activation of hundreds of phosphorylations through amplification of the cell signalling cascade and can produce a permanent change in [[Enzyme|enzyme]] molecules. This response can be induced by stress or other stimuli in the environment and causes many physiological effects such as increased heart rate, increased blood sugar levels (due to the conversion of [[Glycogen|glycogen]] to [[Glucose|glucose]] in the [[Liver|liver]]); increased breathing rate, constriction of peripheral blood vessels and dilation of the pupils<ref>Alberts et al. (2008:G2), Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5th edition, New York: Garland Science</ref><ref>The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (2015). https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a603002.html date visited 20/10/2015</ref>. systole<ref>systole</ref>

Epinephrine injections can cause side effects such as :

*difficulty breathing
*pounding, fast, or irregular heartbeat
*nausea
*vomiting
*sweating
*dizziness
*nervousness, anxiety, or restlessness
*weakness
*pale skin
*headache
*uncontrollable shaking of a part of your body<ref>American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (2012). https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a603002.html</ref>

=== Reference ===

<references />.

[https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systole simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systole]