The School of Biomedical Sciences Wiki - User contributions [en]

Cancer immunotherapy

2018-12-10T01:12:47Z

180646386:

= Cancer Immunotherapy =

[[Cancer|Cancer]] immunotherapy involves treatments that harness the intrinsic mechanisms of the patient's own [[Immune system|immune system]] to trigger a targeted immune response against [[Tumour|tumor cells]]<ref>What is Immunotherapy. Cancer Research Institute. [cited 08/12/2018]. Available from: https://www.cancerresearch.org/immunotherapy/what-is-immunotherapy</ref>. Having originated from aberrant [[Gene expression|gene expression and]] [[Mutation|mutations]], cancer cells display many non-self [[Antigen|antigens]] from mutant proteins, known as neoantigens, that are specific to the tumor and thus have the potential to be recognized by the immune system<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. However, most often than not, tumor cells evade immune response by repressing the activities of [[T cells|T-lymphocytes]]<ref>Newman T. How does cancer evade the immune system? New mechanism revealed. Medical News Today. MediLexicon International; 2017 [cited 09/10/2018]. Available from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320177.php</ref>. Targeted immunotherapy treatments, such as adoptive cell transfer and engineered T-cell methods, exploit the [[Cytotoxic t cells|cytotoxic T-cells]] to counteract this evasion<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

== Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) ==

ACT involves manipulation of the tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), tumor-associated lymphocytes that can recognize tumor antigens<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The process involves extracting the tumor specimen, selecting the tumor-specific TILs and amplifying them in vitro using [[Growth factor|growth factors]] and finally reintroducing the amplified cells plus growth factors into the patient. While this in vitro procedure is being done, the patient is given chemotherapy to eliminate the immune cells that repress the activity of activated T-cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The adoptive cells can continue to expand using the growth factors after reinfusion, thus the ability to attack cancer cells is maximized<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref> There has been promising results in ACT clinical trials in patients with metastatic melanoma, cervical cancer and some blood cancers etc.<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. 

== Genetically engineered T-cells ==

This method involves genetically introducing [[Recombinant DNA Technology|recombinant]] T-cell receptors (TCRs) that are specific to antigens on tumor cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Synthetic TCR gene sequences are "introduced in vitro into patients' normal T-cells, the recombinant cells are then selected, amplified and reinfused into the patient"<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Evidence from clinical trials has shown positive results in treating leukemias and lymphomas<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

== References ==

<references />

Cancer immunotherapy

2018-12-10T01:12:06Z

180646386:

= Cancer Immunotherapy =

[[Cancer|Cancer]] immunotherapy involves treatments that harness the intrinsic mechanisms of the patient's own [[Immune system|immune system]] to trigger a targeted immune response against [[Tumour|tumor cells]]<ref>What is Immunotherapy. Cancer Research Institute. [cited 08/12/2018]. Available from: https://www.cancerresearch.org/immunotherapy/what-is-immunotherapy</ref>. Having originated from aberrant [[Gene expression|gene expression and]] [[Mutation|mutations]], cancer cells display many non-self [[Antigen|antigens]] from mutant proteins, known as neoantigens, that are specific to the tumor and thus have the potential to be recognized by the immune system<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. However, most often than not, tumor cells evade immune response by repressing the activities of [[T cells|T-lymphocytes]]<ref>Newman T. How does cancer evade the immune system? New mechanism revealed. Medical News Today. MediLexicon International; 2017 [cited 09/10/2018]. Available from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320177.php</ref>. Targeted immunotherapy treatments, such as adoptive cell transfer and engineered T-cell methods, exploit the [[Cytotoxic t cells|cytotoxic T-cells]] to counteract this evasion<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

=== Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) ===

ACT involves manipulation of the tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), tumor-associated lymphocytes that can recognize tumor antigens<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The process involves extracting the tumor specimen, selecting the tumor-specific TILs and amplifying them in vitro using [[Growth factor|growth factors]] and finally reintroducing the amplified cells plus growth factors into the patient. While this in vitro procedure is being done, the patient is given chemotherapy to eliminate the immune cells that repress the activity of activated T-cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The adoptive cells can continue to expand using the growth factors after reinfusion, thus the ability to attack cancer cells is maximized<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref> There has been promising results in ACT clinical trials in patients with metastatic melanoma, cervical cancer and some blood cancers etc.<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. 

=== Genetically engineered T-cells ===

This method involves genetically introducing [[Recombinant DNA Technology|recombinant]] T-cell receptors (TCRs) that are specific to antigens on tumor cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Synthetic TCR gene sequences are "introduced in vitro into patients' normal T-cells, the recombinant cells are then selected, amplified and reinfused into the patient"<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Evidence from clinical trials has shown positive results in treating leukemias and lymphomas<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

== References ==

<references />

Cancer immunotherapy

2018-12-10T01:10:55Z

180646386:

= Cancer Immunotherapy =

[[Cancer|Cancer]] immunotherapy involves treatments that harness the intrinsic mechanisms of the patient's own [[Immune system|immune system]] to trigger a targeted immune response against [[Tumour|tumor cells]]<ref>What is Immunotherapy. Cancer Research Institute. [cited 08/12/2018]. Available from: https://www.cancerresearch.org/immunotherapy/what-is-immunotherapy</ref>. Having originated from aberrant [[Gene expression|gene expression and]] [[Mutation|mutations]], cancer cells display many non-self [[Antigen|antigens]] from mutant proteins, known as neoantigens, that are specific to the tumor and thus have the potential to be recognized by the immune system<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. However, most often than not, tumor cells evade immune response by repressing the activities of [[T cells|T-lymphocytes]]<ref>Newman T. How does cancer evade the immune system? New mechanism revealed. Medical News Today. MediLexicon International; 2017 [cited 09/10/2018]. Available from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320177.php</ref>. Targeted immunotherapy treatments, such as adoptive cell transfer and engineered T-cell methods, exploit the [[Cytotoxic t cells|cytotoxic T-cells]] to counteract this evasion<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

* 

== Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) ==

ACT involves manipulation of the tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), tumor-associated lymphocytes that can recognize tumor antigens<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The process involves extracting the tumor specimen, selecting the tumor-specific TILs and amplifying them in vitro using [[Growth factor|growth factors]] and finally reintroducing the amplified cells plus growth factors into the patient. While this in vitro procedure is being done, the patient is given chemotherapy to eliminate the immune cells that repress the activity of activated T-cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The adoptive cells can continue to expand using the growth factors after reinfusion, thus the ability to attack cancer cells is maximized<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref> There has been promising results in ACT clinical trials in patients with metastatic melanoma, cervical cancer and some blood cancers etc.<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. 

* 

== Genetically engineered T-cells ==

This method involves genetically introducing [[Recombinant DNA Technology|recombinant]] T-cell receptors (TCRs) that are specific to antigens on tumor cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Synthetic TCR gene sequences are "introduced in vitro into patients' normal T-cells, the recombinant cells are then selected, amplified and reinfused into the patient"<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Evidence from clinical trials has shown positive results in treating leukemias and lymphomas<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

== References ==

<references />

Cancer immunotherapy

2018-12-10T01:09:51Z

180646386:

= Cancer Immunotherapy =

[[Cancer|Cancer]] immunotherapy involves treatments that harness the intrinsic mechanisms of the patient's own [[Immune system|immune system]] to trigger a targeted immune response against [[Tumour|tumor cells]]<ref>What is Immunotherapy. Cancer Research Institute. [cited 08/12/2018]. Available from: https://www.cancerresearch.org/immunotherapy/what-is-immunotherapy</ref>. Having originated from aberrant [[Gene expression|gene expression and]] [[Mutation|mutations]], cancer cells display many non-self [[Antigen|antigens]] from mutant proteins, known as neoantigens, that are specific to the tumor and thus have the potential to be recognized by the immune system<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. However, most often than not, tumor cells evade immune response by repressing the activities of [[T cells|T-lymphocytes]]<ref>Newman T. How does cancer evade the immune system? New mechanism revealed. Medical News Today. MediLexicon International; 2017 [cited 09/10/2018]. Available from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320177.php</ref>. Targeted immunotherapy treatments, such as adoptive cell transfer and engineered T-cell methods, exploit the [[Cytotoxic t cells|cytotoxic T-cells]] to counteract this evasion<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

*

== Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) ==

    ACT involves manipulation of the tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), tumor-associated lymphocytes that can recognize tumor antigens<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The process involves extracting the tumor specimen, selecting the tumor-specific TILs and amplifying them in vitro using [[Growth factor|growth factors]] and finally reintroducing the amplified cells plus growth factors into the patient. While this in vitro procedure is being done, the patient is given chemotherapy to eliminate the immune cells that repress the activity of activated T-cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The adoptive cells can continue to expand using the growth factors after reinfusion, thus the ability to attack cancer cells is maximized<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref> There has been promising results in ACT clinical trials in patients with metastatic melanoma, cervical cancer and some blood cancers etc.<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. 

*

== Genetically engineered T-cells ==

    This method involves genetically introducing [[Recombinant DNA Technology|recombinant]] T-cell receptors (TCRs) that are specific to antigens on tumor cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Synthetic TCR gene sequences are "introduced in vitro into patients' normal T-cells, the recombinant cells are then selected, amplified and reinfused into the patient"<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Evidence from clinical trials has shown positive results in treating leukemias and lymphomas<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

== References ==

<references />

Cancer immunotherapy

2018-12-10T01:09:13Z

180646386:

= Cancer Immunotherapy =

[[Cancer|Cancer]] immunotherapy involves treatments that harness the intrinsic mechanisms of the patient's own [[Immune system|immune system]] to trigger a targeted immune response against [[Tumour|tumor cells]]<ref>What is Immunotherapy. Cancer Research Institute. [cited 08/12/2018]. Available from: https://www.cancerresearch.org/immunotherapy/what-is-immunotherapy</ref>. Having originated from aberrant [[Gene expression|gene expression and]] [[Mutation|mutations]], cancer cells display many non-self [[Antigen|antigens]] from mutant proteins, known as neoantigens, that are specific to the tumor and thus have the potential to be recognized by the immune system<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. However, most often than not, tumor cells evade immune response by repressing the activities of [[T cells|T-lymphocytes]]<ref>Newman T. How does cancer evade the immune system? New mechanism revealed. Medical News Today. MediLexicon International; 2017 [cited 09/10/2018]. Available from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320177.php</ref>. Targeted immunotherapy treatments, such as adoptive cell transfer and engineered T-cell methods, exploit the [[Cytotoxic t cells|cytotoxic T-cells]] to counteract this evasion<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

*

== Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) ==

    ACT involves manipulation of the tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), tumor-associated lymphocytes that can recognize tumor antigens<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The process involves extracting the tumor specimen, selecting the tumor-specific TILs and amplifying them in vitro using [[Growth factor|growth factors]] and finally reintroducing the amplified cells plus growth factors into the patient. While this in vitro procedure is being done, the patient is given chemotherapy to eliminate the immune cells that repress the activity of activated T-cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The adoptive cells can continue to expand using the growth factors after reinfusion, thus the ability to attack cancer cells is maximized<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref> There has been promising results in ACT clinical trials in patients with metastatic melanoma, cervical cancer and some blood cancers etc.<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. 

*

== Genetically engineered T-cells ==

    This method involves genetically introducing [[Recombinant_DNA_Technology|recombinant]] T-cell receptors (TCRs) that are specific to antigens on tumor cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Synthetic TCR gene sequences are "introduced in vitro into patients' normal T-cells, the recombinant cells are then selected, amplified and reinfused into the patient"<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Evidence from clinical trials has shown positive results in treating leukemias and lymphomas<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

=== References ===

<references />

Cancer immunotherapy

2018-12-10T01:06:02Z

180646386:

= Cancer Immunotherapy =

[[Cancer|Cancer]] immunotherapy involves treatments that harness the intrinsic mechanisms of the patient's own [[Immune system|immune system]] to trigger a targeted immune response against [[Tumour|tumor cells]]<ref>What is Immunotherapy. Cancer Research Institute. [cited 08/12/2018]. Available from: https://www.cancerresearch.org/immunotherapy/what-is-immunotherapy</ref>. Having originated from aberrant [[Gene expression|gene expression and]] [[Mutation|mutations]], cancer cells display many non-self [[Antigen|antigens]] from mutant proteins, known as neoantigens, that are specific to the tumor and thus have the potential to be recognized by the immune system<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. However, most often than not, tumor cells evade immune response by repressing the activities of [[T cells|T-lymphocytes]]<ref>Newman T. How does cancer evade the immune system? New mechanism revealed. Medical News Today. MediLexicon International; 2017 [cited 09/10/2018]. Available from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320177.php</ref>. Targeted immunotherapy treatments, such as adoptive cell transfer and engineered T-cell methods, exploit the [[Cytotoxic t cells|cytotoxic T-cells]] to counteract this evasion<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

*
== Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) ==

    ACT involves manipulation of the tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), tumor-associated lymphocytes that can recognize tumor antigens<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The process involves extracting the tumor specimen, selecting the tumor-specific TILs and amplifying them in vitro using [[Growth factor|growth factors]] and finally reintroducing the amplified cells plus growth factors into the patient. While this in vitro procedure is being done, the patient is given chemotherapy to eliminate the immune cells that repress the activity of activated T-cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The adoptive cells can continue to expand using the growth factors after reinfusion, thus the ability to attack cancer cells is maximized<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref> There has been promising results in ACT clinical trials in patients with metastatic melanoma, cervical cancer and some blood cancers etc.<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. 

*
== Genetically engineered T-cells ==

    This method involves genetically introducing recombinant T-cell receptors (TCRs) that are specific to antigens on tumor cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Synthetic TCR gene sequences are "introduced in vitro into patients' normal T-cells, the recombinant cells are then selected, amplified and reinfused into the patient"<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Evidence from clinical trials has shown positive results in treating leukemias and lymphomas<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

=== References ===

<references />

Cancer immunotherapy

2018-12-10T01:01:50Z

180646386: new page created

[[Cancer|Cancer]] immunotherapy involves treatments that harness the intrinsic mechanisms of the patient's own [[Immune_system|immune system]] to trigger a targeted immune response against [[Tumour|tumor cells]]<ref>What is Immunotherapy. Cancer Research Institute. [cited 08/12/2018]. Available from: https://www.cancerresearch.org/immunotherapy/what-is-immunotherapy</ref>. Having originated from aberrant [[Gene_expression|gene expression ]]and [[Mutation|mutations]], cancer cells display many non-self [[Antigen|antigens]] from mutant proteins, known as neoantigens, that are specific to the tumor and thus have the potential to be recognized by the immune system<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. However, most often than not, tumor cells evade immune response by repressing the activities of [[T cells|T-lymphocytes]]<ref>Newman T. How does cancer evade the immune system? New mechanism revealed. Medical News Today. MediLexicon International; 2017 [cited 09/10/2018]. Available from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320177.php</ref>. Targeted immunotherapy treatments, such as adoptive cell transfer and engineered T-cell methods, exploit the [[cytotoxic t cells|cytotoxic T-cells]] to counteract this evasion<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

*Adoptive cell transfer (ACT) 

    ACT involves manipulation of the tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), tumor-associated lymphocytes that can recognize tumor antigens<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The process involves extracting the tumor specimen, selecting the tumor-specific TILs and amplifying them in vitro using [[Growth_factor|growth factors]] and finally reintroducing the amplified cells plus growth factors into the patient. While this in vitro procedure is being done, the patient is given chemotherapy to eliminate the immune cells that repress the activity of activated T-cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. The adoptive cells can continue to expand using the growth factors after reinfusion, thus the ability to attack cancer cells is maximized<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref> There has been promising results in ACT clinical trials in patients with metastatic melanoma, cervical cancer and some blood cancers etc.<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. 

*Genetically engineered T-cells

    This method involves genetically introducing recombinant T-cell receptors (TCRs) that are specific to antigens on tumor cells<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Synthetic TCR gene sequences are "introduced in vitro into patients' normal T-cells, the recombinant cells are then selected, amplified and reinfused into the patient"<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>. Evidence from clinical trials has shown positive results in treating leukemias and lymphomas<ref>Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladino MA, Killian D. Concepts of genetics. 12th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson Education; 2018.</ref>.

Epigenetics

2018-12-09T21:36:15Z

180646386:

Epigenetics is the study of changes to the [[Genome|genome]] and the heritability of said alterations. [[Gene expression|Gene expression]] within an [[Organism|organism]] can be altered by changes to the [[Genome|genome]], without the [[DNA|DNA]] sequence itself being changed, in response to its environment. This essentially results in a change in the [[Phenotype|phenotype]] without a change to the [[Genotype|genotype]].

This is mainly caused by the addition of specific chemical groups on to the genome, which can promote or inhibit the transcription of [[Genes|genes]] into [[Polypeptides|polypeptides]]. An example of epigenetic change is [[DNA methylation|DNA methylation]], which is the addition of a [[Methyl group|methyl group]] to [[Cytosine|cytosine]] by methyltransferases. The methyl group is added to the C5 atom of a cytosine base in a [[CpG Islands|CpG dinucleotide]] within the DNA. This methyl group originates from an S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) molecule, and the process is catalysed by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs)<ref>Herceg Z. Epigenetics and cancer: towards an evaluation of the impact of environmental and dietary factors. Mutagenesis. 2007. 22(2), 91–103</ref>. This methylation prevents the binding of [[Transcription factor|transcription factors]] and therefore leads to a low rate of transcription of those genes. It is also due to positive feedback loops of gene regulatory proteins or to heritable modifications in chromatin<ref>Bruce Alberts, Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts and Peter Walter. (2008) Molecular Biology of The Cell, Fifth Edition, New York: Garland Science.</ref>. The genome alterations are considered to be heritable, therefore the changes in gene expression of an organism may affect their offspring in subsequent generations<ref>Carey N. The epigenetics revolution. United Kingdom: Icon Books Ltd; 2012.</ref>. In other words, parents' past experience could be passed on to the  next generation which will make them have better characteristics than their parents.

The epigenome is a structure that consists of a [[Histones|histone]] octamer which tightly wrapped [[DNA|DNA]] is coiled, this fundamental repeating subunit is called the [[Nucleosome|nucleosome]]. Changes to the epigenome results in conformational changes in the geometry of the genome. This “highlights” specific parts of the DNA sequence thus affecting [[Transcription|transcription]] and, therefore, gene expression. Different cells have different active genes despite having similar DNA sequences. For example, [[Brain|brain]] cells and [[Liver|liver]] cells contain the same DNA sequence yet the expressed active genes are different. These histone modifications resulting in epigenetic change can be caused by over 150 chemical reactions such as [[Histone Acetylation|acetylation]], [[Methylation|methylation]], [[Ubiquitination|ubiquitination]] and [[Phosphorylation|phosphorylation]]<ref>Griffiths AJF, Wessler SR, Carroll SB, Doebley J. Introduction to genetic analysis, 11th ed. United States of America: W.H. Freeman and Company; 2015.</ref>.

Methylation is the addition of a methyl group onto a cytosine base, this results in the condensing of the DNA-histone complex. Meaning that there's a smaller area for transcriptional factors to bind to the genome. [[Acetylation|Acetylation]] is the addition of an acetyl group to a [[DNA|DNA]] molecule, which enhances the molecules affinity for binding proteins to interact with specific sites in order to initiate [[Gene transcription|gene transcription]].

Formerly, it was assumed that for proper cellular development and distinction to occur in mammals, the epigenome was fully erased through a 'reprogramming' process which happens twice; once during gamete formation and once during conception<ref>Alan Horsager(2014) Episona. Available at: https://www.episona.com/3-examples-transgenerational-epigenetic-inheritance/ (last accessed 18 Nov 2015)</ref>. It is reconstructed between generations. The methylation marks are supposed to be converted to hydroxymethylation which will be diluted as the cell divides<ref>University of Cambridge (25 Jan 2013) Available at: http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/scientists-discover-how-epigenetic-information-could-be-inherited (last accessed 18 Nov 2015)</ref>. Now, however, incomplete removal of epigenomes in specific genes have been found, suggesting that certain gene profiles are inherited epigenetically<ref name="[3]">Utahedu. 3. Utahedu. [Online]. Available from: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/ [Accessed 20 November 2015].</ref>. Heritability of epigenetic modification has been observed in studies with mice. One such study revealed the transgenerational inheritance of the yellow coat colour phenotype in mice, resulting from the incomplete erasure of methylation marks when a silenced Avy allele is passed down through the female germline<ref>Morgan H, Sutherland H et al. Epigenetic inheritance at the agouti locus in the mouse. Nature Genetics 1999; 23(3)</ref>.

=== References ===

<references />

Epigenetics

2018-12-09T21:34:21Z

180646386: Added some links

Epigenetics is the study of changes to the [[Genome|genome]] and the heritability of said alterations. [[Gene expression|Gene expression]] within an [[Organism|organism]] can be altered by changes to the [[Genome|genome]], without the [[DNA|DNA]] sequence itself being changed, in response to its environment. This essentially results in a change in the [[Phenotype|phenotype]] without a change to the [[Genotype|genotype]].

This is mainly caused by the addition of specific chemical groups on to the genome, which can promote or inhibit the transcription of [[Genes|genes]] into [[Polypeptides|polypeptides]]. An example of epigenetic change is [[DNA methylation|DNA methylation]], which is the addition of a [[Methyl group|methyl group]] to [[Cytosine|cytosine]] by methyltransferases. The methyl group is added to the C5 atom of a cytosine base in a [[CpG_Islands|CpG dinucleotide]] within the DNA. This methyl group originates from an S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) molecule, and the process is catalysed by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs)<ref>Herceg Z. Epigenetics and cancer: towards an evaluation of the impact of environmental and dietary factors. Mutagenesis. 2007. 22(2), 91–103</ref>. This methylation prevents the binding of [[Transcription factor|transcription factors]] and therefore leads to a low rate of transcription of those genes. It is also due to positive feedback loops of gene regulatory proteins or to heritable modifications in chromatin<ref>Bruce Alberts, Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts and Peter Walter. (2008) Molecular Biology of The Cell, Fifth Edition, New York: Garland Science.</ref>. The genome alterations are considered to be heritable, therefore the changes in gene expression of an organism may affect their offspring in subsequent generations<ref>Carey N. The epigenetics revolution. United Kingdom: Icon Books Ltd; 2012.</ref>. In other words, parents' past experience could be passed on to the  next generation which will make them have better characteristics than their parents.

The epigenome is a structure that consists of a[[Histone|histone ]]octamer which tightly wrapped [[DNA|DNA]] is coiled, this fundamental repeating subunit is called the [[Nucleosome|nucleosome]]. Changes to the epigenome results in conformational changes in the geometry of the genome. This “highlights” specific parts of the DNA sequence thus affecting [[Transcription|transcription]] and, therefore, gene expression. Different cells have different active genes despite having similar DNA sequences. For example, [[Brain|brain]] cells and [[Liver|liver]] cells contain the same DNA sequence yet the expressed active genes are different. These histone modifications resulting in epigenetic change can be caused by over 150 chemical reactions such as [[Histone Acetylation|acetylation]], [[Methylation|methylation]], [[Ubiquitination|ubiquitination]] and [[Phosphorylation|phosphorylation]]<ref>Griffiths AJF, Wessler SR, Carroll SB, Doebley J. Introduction to genetic analysis, 11th ed. United States of America: W.H. Freeman and Company; 2015.</ref>.

Methylation is the addition of a methyl group onto a cytosine base, this results in the condensing of the DNA-histone complex. Meaning that there's a smaller area for transcriptional factors to bind to the genome. [[Acetylation|Acetylation]] is the addition of an acetyl group to a [[DNA|DNA]] molecule, which enhances the molecules affinity for binding proteins to interact with specific sites in order to initiate [[Gene transcription|gene transcription]].

Formerly, it was assumed that for proper cellular development and distinction to occur in mammals, the epigenome was fully erased through a 'reprogramming' process which happens twice; once during gamete formation and once during conception<ref>Alan Horsager(2014) Episona. Available at: https://www.episona.com/3-examples-transgenerational-epigenetic-inheritance/ (last accessed 18 Nov 2015)</ref>. It is reconstructed between generations. The methylation marks are supposed to be converted to hydroxymethylation which will be diluted as the cell divides<ref>University of Cambridge (25 Jan 2013) Available at: http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/scientists-discover-how-epigenetic-information-could-be-inherited (last accessed 18 Nov 2015)</ref>. Now, however, incomplete removal of epigenomes in specific genes have been found, suggesting that certain gene profiles are inherited epigenetically<ref name="[3]">Utahedu. 3. Utahedu. [Online]. Available from: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/ [Accessed 20 November 2015].</ref>. Heritability of epigenetic modification has been observed in studies with mice. One such study revealed the transgenerational inheritance of the yellow coat colour phenotype in mice, resulting from the incomplete erasure of methylation marks when a silenced Avy allele is passed down through the female germline<ref>Morgan H, Sutherland H et al. Epigenetic inheritance at the agouti locus in the mouse. Nature Genetics 1999; 23(3)</ref>.

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